History & Culture

When winter's chill embraced ancient China, a unique sense of joy permeated the air. Unlike the vibrant energy of spring or the abundant harvests of autumn, the colder months offered a distinct pleasure. As snow blanketed the landscape in a pristine white, people found warmth and security indoors, their minds filled with delightful winter fantasies. What did they do to pass the time? The ancients left behind a legacy of elegant and amusing pastimes that transformed the season into a period of celebration and reflection. From dynamic sports on ice to quiet moments appreciating nature's beauty, their activities were both meaningful and joyful, providing a fascinating glimpse into a world where winter was not merely endured but enthusiastically welcomed. Ice Games Among the most popular winter sports was Bingxi (冰嬉), a term encompassing various ice activities. Records of these games date back to the Sui and Tang dynasties, but they truly flourished later. By the Ming dynasty, Bingxi had become part of military training, with a special office established to oversee it. The Qing dynasty marked the peak of these ancient ice sports. Emperors encouraged Bingxi to strengthen the Eight Banners army, believing it enhanced their physical prowess and combat…

In ancient China, a luxuriant beard was the ultimate symbol of masculine maturity and charm. Historical portraits and literary classics are filled with descriptions of venerable men distinguished by their impressive facial hair. Yet in contemporary China, from the bustling streets of Shanghai to the screens of popular television dramas, the bearded face has all but disappeared. This shift raises a compelling question about the evolution of male aesthetics. Why has a feature once so central to a man's identity fallen so dramatically out of favor? The answer lies at the intersection of changing beauty standards, media influence, and a fundamental redefinition of what constitutes male attractiveness today. Historical Significance For centuries, facial hair was far more than a simple biological trait; it was a powerful social signifier. In the hierarchy of classical aesthetics, a fine beard indicated wisdom, virility, and social standing. Historical texts and paintings consistently depict revered figures, from scholars to generals, adorned with beards. The legendary warrior Guan Yu (关羽), a central character in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义), is famously remembered as the "Gentleman with the Beautiful Beard." His long, flowing beard was an integral part of his formidable and honorable image, a…

Ancient China's bureaucratic system was a vast and intricate network, filled with roles that might seem odd or mysterious to modern eyes. These positions, with their unique names and specialized duties, offer a glimpse into the political ingenuity of bygone eras. Far from being mere curiosities, they played vital parts in maintaining social order and supporting the imperial machinery. This article delves into four such fascinating jobs, revealing how they evolved and why they mattered. From tutors to crime-fighters, these officials shaped history in ways that still capture our imagination today. 1. The Taizi Xima (太子洗马) Imagine a job title that sounds like it involves scrubbing horses, but actually places you at the heart of imperial power. The Taizi Xima was exactly that—a high-ranking tutor and confidential secretary to the crown prince. Contrary to what the name suggests, this role had nothing to do with equine care. Instead, it focused on guiding the future ruler through education and state affairs. Originating in the Qin Dynasty, the title derived from a term meaning "pioneer," reflecting the official's duty to lead and advise. Holders of this position curated the prince's library, instructed him in classics, and accompanied him on journeys, building a…

In the television series Strange Tales of Tang Dynasty Ⅲ: Chang'an ( 唐朝诡事录之长安), two officials are on a mission to locate a mysterious artifact—a golden slip. This object holds the key to unraveling a complex mystery. What many viewers might not realize is that this plot device is not merely a writer's invention. It is based on a real, historical treasure connected to one of China's most powerful rulers, Empress Wu Zetian (武则天). This gleaming piece of gold offers a tangible link to her reign, raising a compelling question: could this small object have truly held significance for the fate of an entire dynasty? The Golden Proof The prop in the show is a detailed replica of an actual artifact housed in the Henan Museum. This genuine Jin Jian (金简), or Golden Slip, measures 36.2 centimeters in length, 8 centimeters in width, and weighs 223.5 grams. Its gold content exceeds an impressive 96%. The surface is devoid of intricate patterns. Instead, its value lies in the sixty-three characters etched into the metal. These words form a personal plea from the Empress, asking the heavens to absolve her of her worldly sins. This slip remains the only known relic directly tied…

In the heart of ancient China, a bride's journey to her new home was marked by a procession of carefully curated items, each telling a story of family love and societal expectations. From the bustling streets depicted in The Story of Minglan (知否知否应是绿肥红瘦) to the intricate details in Flourished Peony (国色芳华), dowries served as more than mere possessions; they were a woman's anchor in a world defined by marital bonds. These collections, often prepared from a daughter's birth, reflected deep cultural roots where marriage was not just a union but a strategic alignment of families. Parents invested years, sometimes even mortgaging properties, to assemble dowries that would ensure their daughter's dignity and security. This practice, steeped in tradition, highlighted the delicate balance between affection and social standing, weaving a tapestry of hope and responsibility that transcended generations. Dowry Components Ancient Chinese dowries were meticulously divided into practical and symbolic categories, tailored to a family's means. For ordinary households, items like beds, chests, quilts, and pillows formed the core, as seen in historical records and dramas such as The Story of Minglan. These objects, though simple, embodied parental devotion, with families often measuring the groom's home beforehand to customize furniture. In…

As winter winds sweep through modern cities, it is natural to wonder how people in ancient times managed without today's heating systems. The image of historical figures in flowing robes during chilly months might seem illogical, but ancient Chinese developed sophisticated methods to stay warm. This article delves into the innovative clothing and accessories used in dynasties like the Song, revealing how elegance and practicality coexisted in winter wear. From layered garments to insulated accessories, their approaches offer a fascinating glimpse into daily life centuries ago. Layered Clothing In ancient China, people relied on multi-layered garments similar to modern jackets. One key example is the Jia Yi (裌衣), an insulated outer robe designed for cooler seasons. It typically consisted of an outer shell and an inner lining, with padding materials sandwiched in between. This design allowed for flexibility and warmth, much like today's quilted coats. Historical texts, such as poems by Su Shi (苏轼), reference these items, showing their importance in daily life. For instance, in his work Chu Qiu Ji Zi You (初秋寄子由), he describes how putting on a Jia Yi provided comfort as temperatures dropped, highlighting its role in autumn and winter. Archaeological finds support the use of…

Why Did Pearl Makeup Styles Vary So Greatly in the Song Dynasty? From royal portraits to modern television dramas, the distinctive Zhenzhu Zhuang (珍珠妆), or pearl makeup, has become an iconic representation of Song Dynasty aesthetics. This facial adornment, featuring pearls strategically placed on the face, appears in countless historical productions and contemporary Hanfu fashion. Yet observers quickly notice puzzling differences: some wearers display sparse clusters of pearls, while others boast lavish arrangements covering entire cheekbones. What accounts for this dramatic variation in application and quantity? The answer reveals a fascinating narrative about personal expression, economic status, and cultural practices that transcended rigid social hierarchies. Social Statements Contrary to popular assumption, pearl placement and quantity never reflected official rank or marital status during the Song period. While court regulations meticulously dictated dragon and phoenix motifs on formal headdresses to indicate hierarchy, no edict governed facial pearls. The widespread belief that lower-status individuals wore fewer pearls represents a modern misinterpretation. Historical evidence confirms that pearl adornment functioned as what we might call democratic fashion—accessible in theory to anyone who could acquire pearls, though practical limitations naturally applied. The face offers limited real estate for decoration, with preferred positions including the forehead…

When we think of white in traditional Chinese context, many immediately associate it with mourning and funerals. This common belief often leads to misunderstandings when seeing characters in historical dramas dressed in pristine white garments. However, white's role in Chinese sartorial history is far more nuanced and vibrant than mere symbolism of loss. From scholars expressing integrity to nobility showcasing elegance, white has woven itself into the fabric of daily life across dynasties. This article delves into the multifaceted journey of white clothing, challenging modern perceptions and revealing how this hue defined aesthetics beyond somber occasions. Historical White In the Ming Dynasty, white was a staple in wardrobes, especially among the elite. Women often wore Bai Ling Ao (白绫袄), a white silk jacket, during festive events like lantern festivals. These garments were not signs of grief but statements of sophistication. The natural whites used, such as Yu Du Bai (鱼肚白) or Yue Bai (月白), derived from organic dyes, offered a soft glow that complemented the surroundings. Unlike today's stark industrial whites, these tones blended seamlessly with moonlit nights and colorful lanterns, enhancing the wearer's grace without overpowering the scene. White also served practical purposes in everyday attire. It was commonly…

When viewers tuned into the historical drama Strange Tales of Tang Dynasty Ⅲ: Chang'an (唐朝诡事录之长安), a vibrant discussion erupted across social media platforms. The focus was not on the plot, but on the costume of a central character, Princess. Her gown, particularly its distinctive collar, bore a striking resemblance to the iconic outfit worn by Snow White from Western animation. This visual parallel prompted a wave of questions: Was this a deliberate borrowing from Disney? Does this design have any authentic roots in Chinese historical clothing, or is it a modern fabrication? The conversation highlights a larger, ongoing debate about how contemporary media interprets and represents historical fashion, blending fact with creative liberty. This costume controversy serves as a fascinating gateway into examining the intricate dialogue between Eastern and Western aesthetic traditions, and how ancient styles are reimagined for modern screens. Historical Inspirations To understand the princess's attire, one must look back at artifacts from the Tang Dynasty. Archaeological finds, such as ceramic dance figurines, reveal costumes with open necklines, often described as a U-shape or exposed collar. These garments, specifically used for performance, allowed for greater freedom of movement and an ethereal, flowing silhouette. The design typically involved layered…

As temperatures drop each year, modern solutions like electric blankets and smart thermostats become essential. But centuries before central heating, people across China developed remarkably sophisticated methods to stay warm. Their innovations blended architectural genius with portable comfort, creating systems that heated entire homes or provided personal warmth during bitter winters. These weren't just practical solutions—they represented a deep understanding of materials, heat conduction, and seasonal adaptation. From permanent structures built into homes to delicate artifacts carried in sleeves, each invention tells a story of human ingenuity facing nature's challenges. Heated Architecture The Kang (炕) heated bed was northern China's architectural answer to winter. Constructed from brick or adobe, this platform contained an intricate network of flues connecting to the household stove. Heat and smoke from cooking would circulate beneath the sleeping surface before exiting through a chimney. This clever design provided whole-room heating without extra fuel. The system appears in historical dramas like Flourished Peony (国色芳华), where characters enjoy its steady warmth. Wealthier households and palaces developed even more advanced systems. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Forbidden City utilized underground heating channels beneath its most important halls. Servants would light fires in outdoor stoves, with hot air…

Does a cute face truly fit the legendary Empress we know? The recent television series Strange Tales of Tang Dynasty Ⅲ: Chang'an (唐朝诡事录之长安) has sparked fervent discussion with its portrayal of a young Wu Zetian (武则天). Viewers expressed disbelief, questioning how the formidable female emperor could be depicted with such a soft, almost doll-like appearance. This portrayal clashes with the widely accepted historical image of a woman possessing a square forehead and broad cheeks, features believed to signify great ambition and power. The debate goes beyond mere acting, touching upon a deeper question: how should contemporary media represent formidable historical figures, especially women whose authority defied traditional norms? Historical Face What did Wu Zetian actually look like? Historical records, notably the New Book of Tang (新唐书), describe her with the term "Fang E Guang Yi" (方额广颐), meaning a square forehead and wide jawline. This was considered an auspicious physiognomy, predicting nobility and strength. Her own daughter, Princess Taiping (太平公主), was said to share these features, leading Wu Zetian to remark that she resembled her. This historical description presents a stark contrast to the delicate, "moe" style favored in some modern interpretations. This established image has been powerfully brought to life…

Imagine a time when the sky was your only map, and the sun and stars your guiding lights. Long before the magnetic compass pointed the way, ancient people relied on nature's cues to navigate their world. The sun rose in the east and set in the west; at night, the North Star marked true north, while lush tree growth often indicated south. But what happened on cloudy days when these signs vanished? Direction became a guessing game until a groundbreaking invention changed everything. The compass, born from human ingenuity, transformed exploration and trade, enabling journeys across vast oceans and uncharted lands. This is the story of how ancient Chinese innovators turned magnetic rocks into precise tools that shaped history, evolving from simple instruments to sophisticated devices that never lost their way. 1. Si Nan (司南) The Si Nan, often called the ancestor of the modern compass, emerged during the Warring States period. It consisted of a magnetic spoon carved from lodestone and a bronze plate engraved with directional symbols. When placed on the smooth surface, the spoon would spin freely and settle with its handle pointing south. This device leveraged the Earth's magnetic field, though its bulk and sensitivity limited…

In ancient China, where garments rarely featured pockets, bags became essential companions for daily life and travel. These accessories were far more than mere containers; they evolved into symbols of status, practicality, and even fashion across different dynasties. From the earliest recorded uses in the Zhou Dynasty, bags were tailored to specific needs, reflecting social hierarchies and cultural shifts. This exploration delves into how these items transformed from simple carryalls into intricate expressions of identity and style, showcasing the ingenuity of ancient craftsmanship. Early Forms During the Pre-Qin period, people already relied on bags for transporting goods, as noted in the Book of Songs. Texts describe two main types: the small Tuo (橐) and the larger Nang (囊), used for carrying food and supplies during journeys or military campaigns. These early designs emphasized functionality, with materials and sizes adapted to nomadic and agricultural lifestyles. As societies stabilized, bags began to serve broader purposes, laying the foundation for more specialized versions in subsequent eras. By the Han Dynasty, a square bag called the Shounang (绶囊) emerged, primarily holding official seals and documents. Bestowed by emperors upon officials, it became a mark of rank and authority. Historical records like the Song Shu…

Modern holidays come with familiar routines, but ancient Chinese celebrations wove together deeper threads of romance, artistry, and community. Beyond the well-known dragon boats and mooncakes lies a forgotten calendar of occasions where young lovers sought fate, poets found inspiration in floating cups, and villages erupted in gratitude for the earth's bounty. These were not mere dates on a calendar; they were vibrant, participatory events that gave form to human hopes and connections. Let's step back into a world where seasonal rhythms dictated social life and discover the captivating customs that once defined the year's turning points. Knotting Wishes In the crisp air following the Lantern Festival, a unique ritual unfolded in northern households. Unmarried young women would take strips of colorful silk or even old almanac paper, meticulously knotting them together into a long, connected chain. This practice, known as Jie Yangchang (结羊肠), was a physical manifestation of their deepest desires. Each knot represented a silent prayer, a hope that their own romantic paths would be smooth and lead to a fortunate union. The process was both a personal meditation and a social activity. With focused intention, they would intertwine the separate strands, their private thoughts and aspirations weaving…

In the tapestry of ancient Chinese society, women often faced rigid social constraints that limited their public roles, yet many defied these boundaries to forge remarkable careers in specialized fields. From the inner courts of palaces to bustling market streets, female professionals emerged as healers, administrators, and artisans, leaving indelible marks on history. Their stories, echoed in dramas like Empress of China and War and Beauty, reveal a hidden world where women's expertise shaped medicine, governance, and daily life. This article delves into the lives of these pioneering women, exploring how they navigated societal norms to excel in roles that blended skill, tradition, and resilience. Through their journeys, we uncover a legacy of innovation that challenges modern perceptions of gender roles in antiquity. Healing Hands Female doctors in ancient China, known as Nü Yi (女医), carved a niche in healthcare despite societal taboos against women interacting with male patients. Initially, some female healers were called Nü Wu (女巫), who combined herbal knowledge with spiritual practices to treat illnesses. As concepts of modesty, such as "men and women should not touch," prevailed, women naturally took charge in gynecology and obstetrics. In imperial courts, they attended to empresses and concubines during childbirth…

What skincare secrets did ancient Chinese royalty like Wu Zetian (武则天) and Yang Guifei (杨贵妃) use to maintain their flawless complexions? Long before modern cosmetics, women in dynastic China developed intricate beauty routines using natural ingredients. These methods, rooted in tradition and herbal wisdom, focused on cleansing, nourishing, and healing the skin with resources from the environment. From simple rice water to elaborate formulas, ancient skincare was a blend of art and science. This exploration reveals how historical figures achieved radiant skin without today's technology, highlighting practices that have influenced beauty standards for centuries. Ritual Cleansing In ancient China, cleansing was the foundation of skincare, much like today. People in the pre-Qin era used Rice Water, the starchy liquid left after washing rice, to clean their faces. This natural solution, rich in alkaline substances, helped balance skin oils and left the complexion bright and clear. It was a simple, effective start to daily hygiene that even commoners could access. By the Jin Dynasty, a more advanced cleanser called Zao Dou (澡豆) emerged. Made primarily from ground peas mixed with spices and herbs, it dissolved easily in water for a thorough wash. This innovation offered a deeper clean and was praised…

Have you ever hesitated in front of a restroom door, puzzled by an abstract symbol? In the ancient city of Xi'an, this everyday experience is being transformed into a subtle cultural lesson. Forget the universal stick figures; here, history itself is guiding you. A shopping mall in the city has become an unlikely hotspot, not for its stores, but for its three-dimensional restroom signs. These aren't just signs; they are miniature exhibits. They feature intricate figures—a woman in elegant Tang-style attire and a man in a traditional round-collar robe, both rendered with such detail that they seem to step out of a history book. This innovative approach is part of a broader movement where public facilities are becoming canvases for cultural storytelling, challenging the global standard for restroom signage and offering a moment of historical connection in the most mundane of places. Tang Dynasty Guides The Shanxi Archaeological Museum (陕西考古博物馆) takes this concept even further. Its restroom signs are directly inspired by artifacts unearthed from local soil. The female figure is modeled after a mural from the tomb of a Tang dynasty crown prince. She wears a graceful outfit—a narrow-sleeved gown and a long, flowing shawl. Her hairstyle is elaborate,…

In the heart of ancient China, mystical beings were not just tales whispered in the night; they were integral to daily life, influencing everything from architecture to personal adornments. People placed stone lions at their gates, carved jade into beastly forms, and adorned roofs with ceramic figures, all in the hope that these divine creatures would offer protection and blessings. These entities, born from a deep reverence for nature and the unknown, continue to resonate in modern practices, symbolizing a bridge between the human world and the spiritual realm. This exploration delves into the most revered of these beings, uncovering their roles and the lasting legacy they imprint on culture and identity. 1. The Dragon's Dominion When the Dragon first emerged in Chinese lore, it was depicted as a majestic fusion of many animals: antlers like a deer, a head resembling a camel, and claws akin to an eagle. Ancient texts such as Er Ya Yi (尔雅翼) detailed this composite form, highlighting its ability to shift between visibility and invisibility, grow or shrink at will, and ascend to the heavens or dive into deep waters. This versatility made it a symbol of ultimate power and mystery, often linked to seasonal…

Imagine a life confined to inner chambers, where stepping outside was a rare luxury. For women in ancient China, this was often the reality, yet their world was far from dull. Behind closed doors, they engaged in sophisticated games that blended skill, strategy, and social interaction. These activities were not mere pastimes; they were vital expressions of culture and intellect. From throwing arrows to botanical duels, these games offered a glimpse into a vibrant subculture. They provided mental stimulation and a sense of community in otherwise restricted lives. This exploration reveals how creativity thrived within boundaries, shaping a unique aspect of feminine history. 1. Touhu (投壶) Touhu emerged during the Spring and Autumn Period as a ceremonial activity among nobles. By the Tang and Song dynasties, it had become a favorite among women in their quarters. Participants stood at a set distance, aiming to toss arrows into a decorative pot. The pots used by women were often exquisite, made from celadon or lacquer adorned with mother-of-pearl. The arrows, crafted from thornwood, required precision and a steady hand. The game was as much about grace as it was about accuracy. Women performed with slow, deliberate movements, one hand gathering sleeves while…

As temperatures drop, modern minds might wonder how people in ancient China managed to stay warm without today's advanced materials. Long before down jackets and thermal wear, they developed ingenious clothing solutions that evolved over millennia. From the earliest use of animal hides to the sophisticated integration of silk and even paper, these garments were not just functional but also reflected social status and cultural values. Each dynasty introduced its own innovations, turning winter wear into a fascinating aspect of historical life. This journey through time reveals how creativity and resourcefulness helped generations withstand the chill, with styles that ranged from luxurious furs to lightweight yet warm layers. By examining these ancient practices, we gain insight into a world where fashion and necessity intertwined seamlessly. Fur and Leather In ancient China, animal skins served as the primary defense against the cold, dating back to prehistoric times. Early humans relied on hides from hunted game, which provided basic insulation. As societies advanced, these evolved into more refined Qiu (裘), or fur garments, particularly during the Spring and Autumn period. These items became symbols of wealth and power, with nobility often sporting furs from foxes, leopards, and lambs. Classics like the Book…

At a recent Vogue event, actress Liu Yifei captivated audiences with an elegant gown and a hairstyle that sparked both admiration and a sense of déjà vu. Her look featured two symmetrical bundles of baby's breath flowers arranged on either side of her head, creating a soft, ethereal version of a classic form. This was not a simple updo; it was a modern, weightless interpretation of a traditional Chinese hairstyle known as Shuang Huan Ji (双鬟髻), a double-knot style historically worn by young, unmarried women. Its immediate appeal lies in this clever fusion—using a contemporary, delicate material to evoke a silhouette deeply rooted in the past, making it feel both fashionable and timelessly beautiful. Historical Roots The double-knot hairstyle has a long history in China. During the Tang Dynasty, a version called the Shuang Chui Ji, or double drooping knots, was popular, often worn by young maids. Positioned near the cheeks, this style naturally conveyed a playful and youthful energy. There were no strict rules for its size or exact placement, allowing it to be adapted to flatter different face shapes. It evolved into variations like the Bang Zhu Tou (蚌珠头), or "clam pearl head," a name that poetically suggested…

In a world where bold, full lips often dominate beauty trends, the ancient Chinese approach to lipstick offers a surprising contrast. For centuries, Chinese cosmetics emphasized subtlety and precision, with lip colors designed to enhance natural features rather than overwhelm them. This philosophy dates back over two millennia, evolving through dynasties like the Tang, where lipstick became both an art form and a cultural symbol. Unlike Western styles that prioritize volume, Chinese traditions focused on delicate shapes and a rich palette of hues, each with its own story. From romantic exchanges in classical literature to economic insights, lipstick in China has always been more than mere decoration—it's a window into societal values and personal expression. Ancient Beginnings The origins of Chinese lipstick trace to the Warring States period, where early forms were derived from natural sources. Yan Zhi (燕支), as it was known, started as a plant-based product made from the juice of red and blue flowers, often mixed into pastes. Historical texts like Essential Techniques for the Welfare of the People (齐民要术) detail recipes blending ingredients such as cloves and animal fats with pigments like cinnabar. This innovative use of organic materials allowed for versatile applications, where the same…

In the quiet halls of the Datong Museum (大同博物馆), a pair of earrings whispers tales from a millennium ago. Crafted during the Northern Wei Dynasty, these ornaments are more than mere jewelry; they are portals to an era of vibrant cultural exchange. Discovered in a tomb along Heng'an Street, the earrings feature intricate designs that blend local artistry with distant influences. Their modern appeal is startling, with clasp mechanisms and elegant chains that mirror contemporary fashion. Yet, they hail from a time when the Silk Road connected empires, and craftsmanship was a language of power and identity. This piece, attributed to a woman named Han Farong, encapsulates a story of fusion and elegance, waiting to be unraveled. Artisan Craftsmanship The earring's design begins with the Linked Bead Pattern, a motif of small, connected circles symbolizing celestial bodies and divine authority. Skilled artisans carved this into the gold ring, framing two dragons that coil around a central lotus. Within the lotus, a serene human face peers out, a detail that merges spiritual symbolism with artistic grace. Below, teardrop-shaped gems—agate, turquoise, and pearls—dangle from finely worked gold settings. Each element, from the millet-grain textures to the circular turquoise mounts, showcases a hands-on…

In a recent television series, actress Dong Jie (董洁) sparked curiosity with her striking hairstyle, adorned with oversized U-shaped hairpins that echo ancient traditions. This visual choice isn't just a random aesthetic; it taps into a rich history of hair accessories from dynasties like Wei, Jin, Tang, and Song. As viewers marvel at how these simple pins transform her look, they uncover a narrative where functionality meets artistry. This article delves into the evolution of these hairpins, their cultural roots, and how they bridge past and present in modern storytelling. Ancient Origins Long before modern beauty tools, ancient China developed the Zhegu Chai (折股钗), a hairpin resembling today's U-pins. Used from the Wei-Jin periods through the Tang and Song dynasties, it served to secure buns and style hair. The term "Zhegu" refers to its prongs—single for a hairpin, double for a Chai, akin to a fork. Early versions were crafted from bone or jade, but as metalworking advanced, gold, silver, and copper became common. These initial designs were minimalist, with smooth surfaces and no elaborate decorations, prioritizing practicality over ornamentation. Over time, the Zhegu Chai evolved to include intricate patterns and three-dimensional shapes. Artisans employed techniques like Leisi (累丝), where…